# Trigonometric Substitution

Examples

1. int sqrt(1-x^2)dx
2. int sqrt(1+x^2)dx
3. int 1/(x sqrt(x^2-16)dx

Homework

1. int 1/sqrt(81+x^2) dx
2. int_-16^16 1/(256+x^2) dx
3. int_0^2 1/sqrt(16-x^2) dx
4. int sqrt(9-t^2) dt
5. int sqrt(y^2-81)/y dy
6. int 1/(x^2 sqrt(x^2-64)) dx
7. int_0^35 (4x)/sqrt(x^2+1) dx
8. int x^3/sqrt(x^2+121) dx

# Section 7.3 Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions

cosh(x) = (e^x+e^-x)/2

which is the shape of a cable strung between two points.

d/dx[cosh(x)]=(e^x-e^-x)/2=sinh(x)

int cosh(x) dx =(e^x-e^-x)/2+c=sinh(x)+c

d/dx[sinh(x)]=(e^x+e^-x)/2=cosh(x)

int sinh(x) dx =(e^x-e^-x)/2+c=cosh(x)+c

tanh(x) = sinh(x)/cosh(x) =(e^x-e^-x)/(e^x+e^-x)

Alternatively, tanh(x)=(e^(2x)-1)/(e^(2x)+1)

#### Examples

Find d/dx[tanh(x)]

Simplify cosh^2(x)-sinh^2(x)

Find int tanh(x) dx

Find cosh^-1(x)

Find tanh^-1(x)

Find d/dx[cosh^-1(x)]

Findd/dx[sinh^-1(cot(x))]

Find int_(-ln(12))^(-ln(2)) 2 e^x cosh(x) dx

# Fraction Sum Divisors

Given a pair of reduced fractions, e.g., 1/30 and 1/42, or 3/10 and 1/5, we add them with the LCD Algorithm.

If the sum reduces, then it will reduce by a factor of the GCD of the denominators.

#### Example 1/30+1/42

• Find the LCM
30=2 * 3 * 5 and 42=2 * 3 * 7
so the LCM =2 * 3 * 5 * 7 = 210 and the GCD =2* 3=6.
• Modify the first fraction
210/30=7 so we rewrite 1/30 = (7*1)/(7*30) = 7/210
• Modify the second fraction
210/42=5 so 1/42 = (5*1)/(5*42) = 5/210
• Combine the fractions with the common denominator
1/30+1/42 = 7/210+5/210 = 12/210
• Notice if they reduce
12/210= (12 -: 6)/(210 -: 6) = 2/35

#### Example 11/30+1/42

11/30+1/42 = 77/210+5/210 = 82/210= (82 -: 2)/(210 -: 2) = 41/105

#### Proof

Applying the LCD algorithm a/c+b/d=(au+bv)/lcm

lcm=LCM(c,d)
Note that the LCM of two numbers is the product of the highest power of each prime from the prime factorizations of the two numbers.

gcd=GCD(c,d)
Note that the GCD is the lowest power of the primes common to the two numbers.

These sets of prime factors are disjoint and complementary to the product of the two numbers, i.e.,

c* d = lcm * gcd (1)

Alternatively,

lcm/c=d/gcd(2)

To apply the LCD Algorithm we need to find u and v, the complementary factors of the lcm for c and d respectively.

u=lcm/c and v=lcm/d(3)

Since u=lcm/c=d/gcd, then u is made from factors of d that are not common to c. Similarly, v is made from factors of c that are not common to d. Hence u and v have no common factors, i.e., GCD(u,v)=1.

Notice that u*v = lcm/c * lcm/d and gcd=(c*d)/lcm

Hence, lcm = gcd * u * v

so a/c+b/d=(au+bv)/(gcd * u * v)

If this sum is reducible, then there exists an Integer n such that

(au+bv)/n and (gcd * u * v)/n

If n divides u then n must divide bv. However, we know that u is relatively prime to v. Additionally, since b is relatively prime to d, b is also relatively prime to u. Hence n can’t divide bv and then must not divide u,

So if n is to be the GCD of the numerator and denominator of the sum, it must divide the GCD(c,d).

# Fraction Sum Exploration

A common method for adding fractions is to find the lowest common multiple of the denominators. This is called the LCD algorithm, Lowest Common Denominator. Even though we have the smallest possible denominator that allows us to combine the fractions, sometimes the sum will still reduce. I have always wondered why.

Consider 1/3+1/6. The LCD = 6, so the sum becomes 2/6+1/6=3/6 or 1/2. This is reducible.

Now consider 1/3+1/2. The LCD = 6, so the sum becomes 2/6+3/6=5/6. This is clearly not reducible.

I finally found an article explaining the theory behind when a fraction sum is reducible or irreducible.

Biscuits of Number Theory by Arthur T. Benjamin, Ezra Brown, 2006, MAA
URL

Originally published as:
Reducing the Sum of Two Fractions
Shultz, Harris S. and Ray C. Shiflett. Mathematics Teacher. vol. 98, no. 7 (March 2005): pp.486-490.
URL

If the denominators have a commom prime power in the prime factorizations, then some sums are reducible, otherwise, the sums are always irreducible. For denominators 12=2^2*3 and 15=3*5 there exist numerators for which the sum will reduce since they have a common prime power of 3^1, and, for example, 1/12+1/15=9/60 = 3/20. For denominators 8=2^3 and 12=2^2*3 there are no numerators for which the sum reduces, since they do not have a common prime power. Here I am assuming that the numerators are relatively prime to their denominators, i.e., they have a gcd of 1.

Even better, if the common prime power is based on 2, then the sums are always reducible. Otherwise, there exist numerators for which the sum will reduce. The problem then becomes finding those numerators.

10 vs 5 1 2 3 4
1 3/10 1/2 7/10 9/10
3 1/2 7/10 9/10 11/10
7 9/10 11/10 13/10 3/2
9 11/10 13/10 3/2 17/10

# Section 6.5 Physics Applications to Calculus

### Physics Formulas

#### Weight-density

A fluid’s weight-density w is its weight per unit volume. Typical values (lb/ft^3) are listed below.

Gasoline  42
Mercury  849
Milk  64.5
Molasses  100
Olive oil  57
Seawater  64
Freshwater  62.4

### Homework

1. It took 1800 J of work to stretch a spring from its natural length of 2 m to a length of 5 m. Find the spring’s force constant.
2. It takes a force of 21,714 lb to compress a coil spring assembly on a New York City Transit Authority subway car from its free height of 8 in. to its fully compressed height of 5 in.
a. What is the assembly’s force constant?
b. How much work does it take to compress the assembly the first half inch? the second half inch? Answer to the nearest in.-lb.
3. Lifting an elevator cable An electric elevator with a motor at the top has a multistrand cable weighing 4.5 lb > ft. When the car is at the first floor, 180 ft of cable are paid out, and effectively 0 ft are out when the car is at the top floor. How much work does the motor do just lifting the cable when it takes the car from the first floor to the top?
4. The rectangular tank shown here, with its top at ground level, is used to catch runoff water. Assume that the water weighs 62.4 lb/ft^3 .
a. How much work does it take to empty the tank by pumping the water back to ground level once the tank is full?
b. If the water is pumped to ground level with a (5 / 11)-horsepower (hp) motor (work output 250 ft-lb/sec), how long will it take to empty the full tank (to the nearest minute)?
c. Show that the pump in part (b) will lower the water level 10 ft (halfway) during the first 25 min of pumping.
d. The weight of water What are the answers to parts (a) and (b) in a location where water weighs 62.26 lb/ft^3 ? 62.59 lb/ft^3 ?
5. How much work would it take to pump oil from the tank in Example 5 to the level of the top of the tank if the tank were completely full?
6. a. Pumping milk Suppose that the conical container in Example 5 contains milk (weighing 64.5 lb/ft 3 ) instead of olive oil. How much work will it take to pump the contents to the rim?
b. Pumping oil How much work will it take to pump the oil in Example 5 to a level 3 ft above the cone’s rim?
7. Softball How much work has to be performed on a 6.5-oz softball to pitch it 132 ft / sec (90 mph)?
8. On June 11, 2004, in a tennis match between Andy Roddick and Paradorn Srichaphan at the Stella Artois tournament in London, England, Roddick hit a serve measured at 153 mi/h. How much work was required by Andy to serve a 2-oz tennis ball at that speed?
9. Drinking a milkshake The truncated conical container shown here is full of strawberry milkshake that weighs 4/9 oz/in^3 . As you can see, the container is 7 in. deep, 2.5 in. across at the base, and 3.5 in. across at the top (a standard size at Brigham’s in Boston). The straw sticks up an inch above the top. About how much work does it take to suck up the milkshake through the straw (neglecting friction)? Answer in inch-ounces.
10. Calculate the fluid force on one side of the plate in Example 6 using the coordinate system shown here.
11. A semicircular plate 2 ft in diameter sticks straight down into freshwater with the diameter along the surface. Find the force exerted by the water on one side of the plate.
12. The end plates of the trough shown here were designed to withstand a fluid force of 6667 lb. How many cubic feet of water can the tank hold without exceeding this limitation? Round down to the nearest cubic foot. What is the value of h?

# Section 6.4 Surface Areas

 int_{x=a}^b 2\pi f(x) sqrt{1+[dy/dx]^2} dx

#### Homework int_{x=0}^b f(x)dx

Graph each function in the given region and note the axis of rotation. Find and reduce the integrand. Evaluate numerically and exactly with an antiderivative if possible.

1. y=tan(x), 0 <= x <= pi/4 about the x-axis.
2. xy=1, 1 <= y <= 2 about the y-axis.
3. x=int_0^y tan(t)dt, 0 <= y <= pi/3 about the y-axis.
4. Find the lateral (side) surface area of the cone generated by revolving the line segment y = x/2, 0 \le x \le 4 , about the x-axis. Check your answer with the geometry formula
Lateral Surface Area = 1/2\timesbase circumference\timesslant height
5. y=x^3/9, 0 \le x \le 2 about the x-axis.
6. y=\sqrt{2x-x^2}, 0.5 \le x \le 1.5 about the x-axis.
7. x=y^3/3, 0 \le y \le 1 about the y-axis.
8. x=2\sqrt{4-y}, 0 \le y \le 15/4 about the y-axis.
9. x=(e^y+e^{-y})/2, 0 \le y \le \ln(2) about the y-axis.
10. Write an integral for the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = \cos(x), -\pi/2\le x\le\pi/2, about the x-axis.
11. Suppose the semicircle shown to the right is revolved about the​ x-axis to generate a sphere. Let AB be an arc of the semicircle that lies above an interval of length h on the​ x-axis. Show that the area swept out does not depend on the location of the interval.​ Therefore, it does not depend on the location of the slice.
12. Here is a schematic drawing of the 90-ft dome used by the U.S. National Weather Service to house radar in Bozeman, Montana. How much outside surface is there to paint (not counting the bottom)? Express the answer to the nearest square foot.

# Section 6.3 Arc Length Problems

Arc Length = $$\displaystyle \int_{x=a}^b \sqrt{1+\left[f'(x)\right]^2}\,dx$$

Arc Length = $$\displaystyle \int_{y=c}^d \sqrt{1+\left[g'(y)\right]^2}\,dy$$

#### Steps

1. find $$f'(x)$$
2. find $$\big[f'(x)\big]^2$$
3. find $$1+\big[f'(x)\big]^2$$
4. find $$\sqrt{1+\big[f'(x)\big]^2}$$
5. $$\displaystyle \int_{x=a}^b{\sqrt{1+\left[f'(x)\right]^2}\,dx}$$
1. hope to find an antiderivative
2. or evaluate numerically with a computer program

#### Homework

1. Sketch and find the length of the curve $$y=\frac{1}{3}(x^2+2)^\frac{3}{2}$$ from $$x=0$$ to $$x=3$$.
1. $$y’=\frac{1}{3}\frac{3}{2} 2x (x^2+2)^\frac{1}{2}=x (x^2+2)^\frac{1}{2}$$
2. $$(y’)^2 = x^2 (x^2+2)$$
3. $$1+(y’)^2 =1+ x^2 (x^2+2)$$
$$= x^4 + 2x^2 +1 = (x^2+1)^2$$
4. $$\sqrt{1+(y’)^2} = x^2+1$$
5. $$\int_0^3 \left(x^2+1\right) \,dx=\bigg[\frac{x^3}{3}+x\bigg]_0^3=12$$
2. Sketch and find the length of the curve $$y=x^\frac{3}{2}$$ from $$x=0$$ to $$x=4$$.
3. Sketch and find the length of the curve $$x=\frac{y^3}{3}+\frac{1}{4y}$$ from $$y=1$$ to $$y=3$$.
4. Sketch and find the length of the curve $$x=\frac{y^4}{4}+\frac{1}{8y^2}$$ from $$y=1$$ to $$y=2$$.
5. Sketch and find the length of the curve $$x=\int_0^x \sqrt{\sec^4(t)-1}\,dt$$, $$-\frac{\pi}{4}\le x \le\frac{\pi}{4}$$
1. $$x’=\sqrt{\sec^4(x)-1}$$
2. $$(x’)^2=\sec^4(x)-1$$
3. $$1+(x’)^2 =\sec^4(x)$$
4. $$\sqrt{1+(x’)^2} =\sec^2(x)$$
5. $$\displaystyle \int_{-\frac{\pi}{4}}^{\frac{\pi}{4}} \sqrt{1+(x’)^2}\,dx =\int_{-\frac{\pi}{4}}^{\frac{\pi}{4}}\sec^2(x)\,dx=\bigg[\tan(x)\bigg]_{-\frac{\pi}{4}}^{\frac{\pi}{4}}=2$$
6. $$y=x^2$$ , $$-1 \le x \le 2$$
Sketch the graph and set up the integral for the length of the curve. Use a calculator or program to approximate the curve’s length.
7. 13
8. 14
9. 15
10. 21
11. Find the arc length of an astroid. $$\displaystyle x^\frac{2}{3}+y^\frac{2}{3}=a^\frac{2}{3}$$ is a curve called an astroid, star-shaped. Solving for $$y$$ we get $$\displaystyle y=\left(a^\frac{2}{3}-x^\frac{2}{3}\right)^\frac{3}{2}$$. We will start by finding the arclength of half of the section in the first quadrant $$\frac{a\sqrt{2}}{4}$$.
In the graph to the right a = 3. You can see there that Geogebra had a difficult time drawing the cusps on each axis.
Solution
12. 23

# Section 6.2 Cylindrical Shells

Consider revolving a thin rectangle of area under a curve about the y-axis. You would end up with a cylinder, like a label on a can.

The volume of such an object would be $$2\pi x_i f(x_i) \Delta x$$.

Summing these up and taking the limit as $$\Delta x \to 0$$ leads to an integral for a rotational volume.

$$! \int_{x=a}^b 2\pi x f(x) \, dx$$

#### Examples

1. $$y=1+x^2/4$$ where $$0 \le x \le 2$$ about the $$y$$-axis
2. $$x=y^2$$ where $$0 \le y \le \sqrt{2}$$ about the $$x$$-axis
3. $$y=\sqrt{x^2+1}$$ where $$0 \le x \le \sqrt{3}$$ about the $$y$$-axis
4. The region bounded by $$y=x$$, $$y=-x/2$$ and $$x=2$$ about the $$y$$-axis
5. The region bounded by $$y=x^2$$, $$y=2-x$$, $$x=0$$, and $$x \ge 0$$ about the $$y$$-axis
6. The region bounded by $$y=2x-1$$, $$y=\sqrt{x}$$ and $$x=0$$ about the $$y$$-axis
7. The region bounded by $$x=\sqrt{y}$$, $$x=-y$$ and $$y=2$$ about the $$x$$-axis
8. The region bounded by $$x=2y-y^2$$ and $$x=0$$ about the $$x$$-axis
9. The region bounded by $$y=|x|$$ and $$y=1$$ about the $$x$$-axis
10. $$y=x+2$$ and $$y=x^2$$ about
1. $$x=2$$
2. $$x=-1$$
3. the $$x$$-axis
4. $$y=4$$
11. Compute the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by $$y=x$$ and $$y=x^2$$ about each coordinate axis using
1. the shell method
2. the washer method
12. Using washers or shells, find the volume of the region in the first quadrant bounded by the curve $$x=y-y^3$$ and the $$y$$-axis about
1. the $$x$$-axis
2. $$y=1$$
13. Using washers or shells, find the volume of the region  bounded by the curve $$y=\sqrt{x}$$ and the $$y=x^2/8$$ about
1. the $$x$$-axis
2. the $$y$$ axis
14. The region shown here is to be revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Which of the methods (disk, washer, shell) could you use to find the volume of the solid? How many integrals would be required in each case? Explain.

# HW Volumes Part 1

1. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the $$x$$-axis at $$x = 0$$ and $$x = 4$$. The cross-sections perpendicular to the axis on the interval $$0 \le x \le 4$$ are squares whose diagonals run from the parabola $$y = -\sqrt{x}$$ to the parabola $$y = \sqrt{x}$$.

5. The base of a solid is the region between the curve $$y = 2\sqrt{\sin(x)}$$ and the interval $$[0, \pi]$$ on the $$x$$-axis. The cross-sections perpendicular to the $$x$$-axis are
a. equilateral triangles with bases running from the $$x$$-axis to the curve as shown in the accompanying figure.
b. squares with bases running from the $$x$$-axis to the curve.

9. The solid lies between planes perpendicular to the $$y$$-axis at $$y = 0$$ and $$y = 2$$. The cross-sections perpendicular to the $$y$$-axis are circular disks with diameters running from the $$y$$-axis to the parabola $$x = 25y^2$$.

15. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the shaded region about the $$x$$-axis.

17. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the shaded region about the $$y$$-axis.

19. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by $$y=x^2$$, $$y=0$$, and $$x=2$$ about the $$x$$-axis.

Revolving around the $$x$$-axis with the disk method gives us rectangles with a width of $$dx$$. The radius of the disks is $$y=x^2$$.

$$! V=\int_{x=0}^2 \pi \left(x^2\right)^2\,dx$$

$$! V=\pi\bigg[\frac{x^5}{5}\bigg]_0^2=\frac{\pi\cdot 32}{5}\,\textrm{units}^3$$

21. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by $$y=\sqrt{9-x^2}$$ and $$y=0$$ about the $$x$$-axis.

23. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by $$y=\sqrt{\cos(x)}$$, $$0\le x \le \pi /2$$ about the $$x$$-axis.

25. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by $$y=e^{-x}$$, $$y=0$$, and $$x=1$$ about the $$x$$-axis.

31. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the region enclosed by $$x =\sqrt{5}y^2$$, $$x=0$$, $$y=-1$$, and $$y=1$$ about the $$y$$-axis.

32. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the region enclosed by $$x=y^{3/2}$$, $$x=0$$, and $$y=2$$ about the $$y$$-axis.

35. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the region enclosed by $$x=\frac{2}{\sqrt{y+1}}$$, $$x=0$$, $$y=0$$, and $$y=3$$ about the $$y$$-axis.

37. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the shaded region about the $$x$$-axis.

45. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region enclosed by the triangle with vertices $$(1,0)$$, $$(2,1)$$, $$(1,1)$$ about the $$y$$-axis

53. Find the volume of the solid of revolution by revolving the region bounded by the parabola $$y=x^2$$ and the line $$y=1$$ about

a. the line $$y=1$$
b. the line $$y=-1$$
c. the line $$y=2$$

54. By integration, find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the triangular region with vertices $$(0,0)$$, $$(b,0)$$, $$(0,h)$$ about
a. the $$x$$-axis
b. the $$y$$-axis

55. The volume of a torus: The disk $$x^2+y^2\le a^2$$ is revolved about the line $$x=b$$ ($$b\ge a$$) to generate a solid shape like a doughnut and called a torus. Find its volume. (HINT: $$\int_{-a}^{a}\sqrt{a^2-y^2}\,dy=\frac{\pi a^2}{2}$$, since it is the area of a semicircle of radius $$a$$.)

57. Volume of a Bowl
a. A hemispherical bowl of radius $$a$$ contains water to a depth $$h$$. Find the volume of the water in the bowl.
b. Related Rates: Water runs into a sunken concrete hemispherical bowl of radius 5 m at a rate of $$0.2\,\textrm{m}^3$$/sec. How fast is the water level in the bowl rising when the water in 4 m deep?

61. Designing a wok: You are designing a wok frying pan that will be shaped like a spherical bowl with handles. A bit of experimentation at home persuades you that you can get one that holds about 3 L if you make it 9 cm deep and give the sphere a radius of 16 cm. To be sure, you picture the wok as a solid of revolution, as shown here, and calculate its volume with an integral. To the nearest cubic centimeter, what volume do you really get?
($$1\,\textrm{L}=1000\,\textrm{cm}^3$$.)

From the text: